Research progress on rodent models of cervical spinal cord injury_Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery

Authors：

CHEN Hao , RONG Xin , HUANG Kangkang ,  LIU Hao

Department of Orthopedics, Orthopedic Research Institute, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu Sichuan, 610041, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

LIU Hao, Email: liuhao6304@163.com

Keywords：

Cervical spine cord injury; animal model; rodent; model evaluation

DOI：

10.7507/1002-1892.202209049

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Objective To summarize the research progress on rodent models of cervical spinal cord injury (SCI). Methods The relevant domestic and foreign literature in recent years was reviewed, the methods of establishing the rodent models of cervical SCI and the evaluation methods of behavior, imaging, neuroelectrophysiology, and histology were summarized. Results Cervical SCI involves primary and secondary injuries. Primary cervical SCI can be simulated with contusion, contusion compression, fracture dislocation, spinal cord traction, and spinal cord transection; scondary cervical SCI can be simulated with photochemical model and excitotoxicity model. Certain evaluation methods such as behavior, imaging, neuroelectrophysiology, and histology are used to evaluation during model building and research. Conclusion Different rodent models of cervical SCI have different advantages and application directions, and it is critical importance for the study of cervical SCI to establish effective animal models.

Citation： CHEN Hao, RONG Xin, HUANG Kangkang, LIU Hao. Research progress on rodent models of cervical spinal cord injury. Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery, 2023, 37(1): 120-126. doi: 10.7507/1002-1892.202209049 Copy

1.	Venkatesh K, Ghosh SK, Mullick M, et al. Spinal cord injury: pathophysiology, treatment strategies, associated challenges, and future implications. Cell Tissue Res, 2019, 377(2): 125-151.
2.	Dumont RJ, Okonkwo DO, Verma S, et al. Acute spinal cord injury, part Ⅰ: pathophysiologic mechanisms. Clin Neuropharmacol, 2001, 24(5): 254-264.
3.	Kriss VM, Kriss TC. SCIWORA (spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality) in infants and children. Clin Pediatr (Phila), 1996, 35(3): 119-124.
4.	Lucas-Osma AM, Schmidt EKA, Vavrek R, et al. Rehabilitative training improves skilled forelimb motor function after cervical unilateral contusion spinal cord injury in rats. Behav Brain Res, 2022, 422: 113731. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113731.
5.	Watson BD, Prado R, Dietrich WD, et al. Photochemically induced spinal cord injury in the rat. Brain Res, 1986, 367(1-2): 296-300.
6.	Yezierski PR, Liu S, Ruenes LG, et al. Excitotoxic spinal cord injury: behavioral and morphological characteristics of a central pain model. Pain, 1998, 75(1): 141-155.
7.	Dunham KA, Siriphorn A, Chompoopong S, et al. Characterization of a graded cervical hemicontusion spinal cord injury model in adult male rats. J Neurotrauma, 2010, 27(11): 2091-2106.
8.	Kulesskaya N, Molotkov D, Sliepen S, et al. Heparin-binding growth-associated molecule (pleiotrophin) affects sensory signaling and selected motor functions in mouse model of anatomically incomplete cervical spinal cord injury. Front Neurol, 2021, 12: 738800. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2021.738800.
9.	Huang Z, Huang Z, Kong G, et al. Anatomical and behavioral outcomes following a graded hemi-contusive cervical spinal cord injury model in mice. Behav Brain Res, 2022, 419: 113698. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113698.
10.	Jakeman LB, Guan Z, Wei P, et al. Traumatic spinal cord injury produced by controlled contusion in mouse. J Neurotrauma, 2000, 17(4): 299-319.
11.	Pearse DD, Lo TP, Cho KS, et al. Histopathological and behavioral characterization of a novel cervical spinal cord displacement contusion injury in the rat. J Neurotrauma, 2005, 22(6): 680-702.
12.	Sanganahalli BG, Chitturi J, Herman P, et al. Supraspinal sensorimotor and pain-related reorganization after a hemicontusion rat cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2021, 38(24): 3393-3405.
13.	Forgione N, Chamankhah M, Fehlings MG. A mouse model of bilateral cervical contusion-compression spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2017, 34(6): 1227-1239.
14.	Forgione N, Karadimas SK, Foltz WD, et al. Bilateral contusion-compression model of incomplete traumatic cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2014, 31(21): 1776-1788.
15.	Chio JCT, Wang J, Surendran V, et al. Delayed administration of high dose human immunoglobulin G enhances recovery after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury by modulation of neuroinflammation and protection of the blood spinal cord barrier. Neurobiol Dis, 2021, 148: 105187. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105187.
16.	Choo AM, Liu J, Dvorak M, et al. Secondary pathology following contusion, dislocation, and distraction spinal cord injuries. Exp Neurol, 2008, 212(2): 490-506.
17.	Choo AM, Liu J, Liu Z, et al. Modeling spinal cord contusion, dislocation, and distraction: characterization of vertebral clamps, injury severities, and node of Ranvier deformations. J Neurosci Methods, 2009, 181(1): 6-17.
18.	Speidel J, Mattucci S, Liu J, et al. Effect of velocity and duration of residual compression in a rat dislocation spinal cord injury model. J Neurotrauma, 2020, 37(9): 1140-1148.
19.	Filli L, Zörner B, Weinmann O, et al. Motor deficits and recovery in rats with unilateral spinal cord hemisection mimic the Brown-Sequard syndrome. Brain, 2011, 134(Pt 8): 2261-2273.
20.	Jesus I, Michel-Flutot P, Deramaudt TB, et al. Effects of aerobic exercise training on muscle plasticity in a mouse model of cervical spinal cord injury. Sci Rep, 2021, 11(1): 112. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-80478-9.
21.	Allen LL, Nichols NL, Asa ZA, et al. Phrenic motor neuron survival below cervical spinal cord hemisection. Exp Neurol, 2021, 346: 113832.
22.	Sankari A, Minic Z, Farshi P, et al. Sleep disordered breathing induced by cervical spinal cord injury and effect of adenosine A1 receptors modulation in rats. J Appl Physiol (1985), 2019, 127(6): 1668-1676.
23.	López-Dolado E, Lucas-Osma AM, Collazos-Castro JE. Dynamic motor compensations with permanent, focal loss of forelimb force after cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2013, 30(3): 191-210.
24.	Domínguez-Bajo A, González-Mayorga A, Guerrero CR, et al. Myelinated axons and functional blood vessels populate mechanically compliant rGO foams in chronic cervical hemisected rats. Biomaterials, 2019, 192: 461-474.
25.	Piao MS, Lee JK, Jang JW, et al. A mouse model of photochemically induced spinal cord injury. J Korean Neurosurg Soc, 2009, 46(5): 479-483.
26.	Bhagwani A, Chopra M, Kumar H. Spinal cord injury provoked neuropathic pain and spasticity, and their GABAergic connection. Neurospine, 2022, 19(3): 646-668.
27.	Basso DM, Beattie MS, Bresnahan JC. A sensitive and reliable locomotor rating scale for open field testing in rats. J Neurotrauma, 1995, 12(1): 1-21.
28.	Hamers FP, Lankhorst AJ, van Laar TJ, et al. Automated quantitative gait analysis during overground locomotion in the rat: its application to spinal cord contusion and transection injuries. J Neurotrauma, 2001, 18(2): 187-201.
29.	Timotius IK, Bieler L, Couillard-Despres S, et al. Combination of defined CatWalk gait parameters for predictive locomotion recovery in experimental spinal cord injury rat models. eNeuro, 2021, 8(2): ENEURO. 0497-20.2021. doi: 10.1523/ENEURO.0497-20.2021.
30.	Pitzer C, Kurpiers B, Eltokhi A. Gait performance of adolescent mice assessed by the CatWalk XT depends on age, strain and sex and correlates with speed and body weight. Sci Rep, 2021, 11(1): 21372. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-00625-8.
31.	Aguilar RM, Steward O. A bilateral cervical contusion injury model in mice: assessment of gripping strength as a measure of forelimb motor function. Exp Neurol, 2010, 221(1): 38-53.
32.	Cao Y, Shumsky JS, Sabol MA, et al. Nogo-66 receptor antagonist peptide (NEP1-40) administration promotes functional recovery and axonal growth after lateral funiculus injury in the adult rat. Neurorehabil Neural Repair, 2008, 22(3): 262-278.
33.	Anderson KD, Sharp KG, Hofstadter M, et al. Forelimb locomotor assessment scale (FLAS): novel assessment of forelimb dysfunction after cervical spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol, 2009, 220(1): 23-33.
34.	Khaing ZZ, Geissler SA, Jiang S, et al. Assessing forelimb function after unilateral cervical spinal cord injury: novel forelimb tasks predict lesion severity and recovery. J Neurotrauma, 2012, 29(3): 488-498.
35.	Khaing ZZ, Geissler SA, Schallert T, et al. Assessing forelimb function after unilateral cervical SCI using novel tasks: limb step-alternation, postural instability and pasta handling. J Vis Exp, 2013, (79): e50955. doi: 10.3791/50955.
36.	Kang DW, Cha BG, Lee JH, et al. Ultrasmall polymer-coated cerium oxide nanoparticles as a traumatic brain injury therapy. Nanomedicine, 2022, 45: 102586. doi: 10.1016/j.nano.2022.102586.
37.	Ellens DJ, Gaidica M, Toader A, et al. An automated rat single pellet reaching system with high-speed video capture. J Neurosci Methods, 2016, 271: 119-127.
38.	Detloff MR, Wade RE, Houlé JD. Chronic at- and below-level pain after moderate unilateral cervical spinal cord contusion in rats. J Neurotrauma, 2013, 30(10): 884-890.
39.	Hargreaves K, Dubner R, Brown F, et al. A new and sensitive method for measuring thermal nociception in cutaneous hyperalgesia. Pain, 1988, 32(1): 77-88.
40.	Chitturi J, Sanganahalli BG, Herman P, et al. Association between magnetic resonance imaging-based spinal morphometry and sensorimotor behavior in a hemicontusion model of incomplete cervical spinal cord injury in rats. Brain Connect, 2020, 10(9): 479-489.
41.	Mihai G, Nout YS, Tovar CA, et al. Longitudinal comparison of two severities of unilateral cervical spinal cord injury using magnetic resonance imaging in rats. J Neurotrauma, 2008, 25(1): 1-18.
42.	Dalkilic T, Fallah N, Noonan VK, et al. Predicting injury severity and neurological recovery after acute cervical spinal cord injury: A comparison of cerebrospinal fluid and magnetic resonance imaging biomarkers. J Neurotrauma, 2018, 35(3): 435-445.
43.	Deo AA, Grill RJ, Hasan KM, et al. In vivo serial diffusion tensor imaging of experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res, 2006, 83(5): 801-810.
44.	Shen H, Tang Y, Huang L, et al. Applications of diffusion-weighted MRI in thoracic spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality. Int Orthop, 2007, 31(3): 375-383.
45.	Lee SY, Schmit BD, Kurpad SN, et al. Acute magnetic resonance imaging predictors of chronic motor function and tissue sparing in rat cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2022. doi: 10.1089/neu.2022.0034.
46.	Jirjis MB, Valdez C, Vedantam A, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging as a biomarker for assessing neuronal stem cell treatments affecting areas distal to the site of spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg Spine, 2017, 26(2): 243-251.
47.	Ogawa S, Lee TM, Kay AR, et al. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 1990, 87(24): 9868-9872.
48.	Meyer BP, Hirschler L, Lee S, et al. Optimized cervical spinal cord perfusion MRI after traumatic injury in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 2021, 41(8): 2010-2025.
49.	Younsi A, Zheng G, Riemann L, et al. Long-term effects of neural precursor cell transplantation on secondary injury processes and functional recovery after severe cervical contusion-compression spinal cord injury. Int J Mol Sci, 2021, 22(23): 13106. doi: 10.3390/ijms222313106.
50.	Walker CL, Zhang YP, Liu Y, et al. Anatomical and functional effects of lateral cervical hemicontusion in adult rats. Restor Neurol Neurosci, 2016, 34(3): 389-400.
51.	Huang Z, Li R, Liu J, et al. Longitudinal electrophysiological changes after cervical hemi-contusion spinal cord injury in rats. Neurosci Lett, 2018, 664: 116-122.
52.	Wilcox JT, Satkunendrarajah K, Nasirzadeh Y, et al. Generating level-dependent models of cervical and thoracic spinal cord injury: Exploring the interplay of neuroanatomy, physiology, and function. Neurobiol Dis, 2017, 105: 194-212.
53.	Li R, Huang ZC, Cui HY, et al. Utility of somatosensory and motor-evoked potentials in reflecting gross and fine motor functions after unilateral cervical spinal cord contusion injury. Neural Regen Res, 2021, 16(7): 1323-1330.
54.	Chen K, Liu J, Assinck P, et al. Differential histopathological and behavioral outcomes eight weeks after rat spinal cord injury by contusion, dislocation, and distraction mechanisms. J Neurotrauma, 2016, 33(18): 1667-1684.
55.	Sharif-Alhoseini M, Khormali M, Rezaei M, et al. Animal models of spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Spinal Cord, 2017, 55(8): 714-721.

1. Venkatesh K, Ghosh SK, Mullick M, et al. Spinal cord injury: pathophysiology, treatment strategies, associated challenges, and future implications. Cell Tissue Res, 2019, 377(2): 125-151.
2. Dumont RJ, Okonkwo DO, Verma S, et al. Acute spinal cord injury, part Ⅰ: pathophysiologic mechanisms. Clin Neuropharmacol, 2001, 24(5): 254-264.
3. Kriss VM, Kriss TC. SCIWORA (spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality) in infants and children. Clin Pediatr (Phila), 1996, 35(3): 119-124.
4. Lucas-Osma AM, Schmidt EKA, Vavrek R, et al. Rehabilitative training improves skilled forelimb motor function after cervical unilateral contusion spinal cord injury in rats. Behav Brain Res, 2022, 422: 113731. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113731.
5. Watson BD, Prado R, Dietrich WD, et al. Photochemically induced spinal cord injury in the rat. Brain Res, 1986, 367(1-2): 296-300.
6. Yezierski PR, Liu S, Ruenes LG, et al. Excitotoxic spinal cord injury: behavioral and morphological characteristics of a central pain model. Pain, 1998, 75(1): 141-155.
7. Dunham KA, Siriphorn A, Chompoopong S, et al. Characterization of a graded cervical hemicontusion spinal cord injury model in adult male rats. J Neurotrauma, 2010, 27(11): 2091-2106.
8. Kulesskaya N, Molotkov D, Sliepen S, et al. Heparin-binding growth-associated molecule (pleiotrophin) affects sensory signaling and selected motor functions in mouse model of anatomically incomplete cervical spinal cord injury. Front Neurol, 2021, 12: 738800. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2021.738800.
9. Huang Z, Huang Z, Kong G, et al. Anatomical and behavioral outcomes following a graded hemi-contusive cervical spinal cord injury model in mice. Behav Brain Res, 2022, 419: 113698. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113698.
10. Jakeman LB, Guan Z, Wei P, et al. Traumatic spinal cord injury produced by controlled contusion in mouse. J Neurotrauma, 2000, 17(4): 299-319.
11. Pearse DD, Lo TP, Cho KS, et al. Histopathological and behavioral characterization of a novel cervical spinal cord displacement contusion injury in the rat. J Neurotrauma, 2005, 22(6): 680-702.
12. Sanganahalli BG, Chitturi J, Herman P, et al. Supraspinal sensorimotor and pain-related reorganization after a hemicontusion rat cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2021, 38(24): 3393-3405.
13. Forgione N, Chamankhah M, Fehlings MG. A mouse model of bilateral cervical contusion-compression spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2017, 34(6): 1227-1239.
14. Forgione N, Karadimas SK, Foltz WD, et al. Bilateral contusion-compression model of incomplete traumatic cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2014, 31(21): 1776-1788.
15. Chio JCT, Wang J, Surendran V, et al. Delayed administration of high dose human immunoglobulin G enhances recovery after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury by modulation of neuroinflammation and protection of the blood spinal cord barrier. Neurobiol Dis, 2021, 148: 105187. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105187.
16. Choo AM, Liu J, Dvorak M, et al. Secondary pathology following contusion, dislocation, and distraction spinal cord injuries. Exp Neurol, 2008, 212(2): 490-506.
17. Choo AM, Liu J, Liu Z, et al. Modeling spinal cord contusion, dislocation, and distraction: characterization of vertebral clamps, injury severities, and node of Ranvier deformations. J Neurosci Methods, 2009, 181(1): 6-17.
18. Speidel J, Mattucci S, Liu J, et al. Effect of velocity and duration of residual compression in a rat dislocation spinal cord injury model. J Neurotrauma, 2020, 37(9): 1140-1148.
19. Filli L, Zörner B, Weinmann O, et al. Motor deficits and recovery in rats with unilateral spinal cord hemisection mimic the Brown-Sequard syndrome. Brain, 2011, 134(Pt 8): 2261-2273.
20. Jesus I, Michel-Flutot P, Deramaudt TB, et al. Effects of aerobic exercise training on muscle plasticity in a mouse model of cervical spinal cord injury. Sci Rep, 2021, 11(1): 112. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-80478-9.
21. Allen LL, Nichols NL, Asa ZA, et al. Phrenic motor neuron survival below cervical spinal cord hemisection. Exp Neurol, 2021, 346: 113832.
22. Sankari A, Minic Z, Farshi P, et al. Sleep disordered breathing induced by cervical spinal cord injury and effect of adenosine A1 receptors modulation in rats. J Appl Physiol (1985), 2019, 127(6): 1668-1676.
23. López-Dolado E, Lucas-Osma AM, Collazos-Castro JE. Dynamic motor compensations with permanent, focal loss of forelimb force after cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2013, 30(3): 191-210.
24. Domínguez-Bajo A, González-Mayorga A, Guerrero CR, et al. Myelinated axons and functional blood vessels populate mechanically compliant rGO foams in chronic cervical hemisected rats. Biomaterials, 2019, 192: 461-474.
25. Piao MS, Lee JK, Jang JW, et al. A mouse model of photochemically induced spinal cord injury. J Korean Neurosurg Soc, 2009, 46(5): 479-483.
26. Bhagwani A, Chopra M, Kumar H. Spinal cord injury provoked neuropathic pain and spasticity, and their GABAergic connection. Neurospine, 2022, 19(3): 646-668.
27. Basso DM, Beattie MS, Bresnahan JC. A sensitive and reliable locomotor rating scale for open field testing in rats. J Neurotrauma, 1995, 12(1): 1-21.
28. Hamers FP, Lankhorst AJ, van Laar TJ, et al. Automated quantitative gait analysis during overground locomotion in the rat: its application to spinal cord contusion and transection injuries. J Neurotrauma, 2001, 18(2): 187-201.
29. Timotius IK, Bieler L, Couillard-Despres S, et al. Combination of defined CatWalk gait parameters for predictive locomotion recovery in experimental spinal cord injury rat models. eNeuro, 2021, 8(2): ENEURO. 0497-20.2021. doi: 10.1523/ENEURO.0497-20.2021.
30. Pitzer C, Kurpiers B, Eltokhi A. Gait performance of adolescent mice assessed by the CatWalk XT depends on age, strain and sex and correlates with speed and body weight. Sci Rep, 2021, 11(1): 21372. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-00625-8.
31. Aguilar RM, Steward O. A bilateral cervical contusion injury model in mice: assessment of gripping strength as a measure of forelimb motor function. Exp Neurol, 2010, 221(1): 38-53.
32. Cao Y, Shumsky JS, Sabol MA, et al. Nogo-66 receptor antagonist peptide (NEP1-40) administration promotes functional recovery and axonal growth after lateral funiculus injury in the adult rat. Neurorehabil Neural Repair, 2008, 22(3): 262-278.
33. Anderson KD, Sharp KG, Hofstadter M, et al. Forelimb locomotor assessment scale (FLAS): novel assessment of forelimb dysfunction after cervical spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol, 2009, 220(1): 23-33.
34. Khaing ZZ, Geissler SA, Jiang S, et al. Assessing forelimb function after unilateral cervical spinal cord injury: novel forelimb tasks predict lesion severity and recovery. J Neurotrauma, 2012, 29(3): 488-498.
35. Khaing ZZ, Geissler SA, Schallert T, et al. Assessing forelimb function after unilateral cervical SCI using novel tasks: limb step-alternation, postural instability and pasta handling. J Vis Exp, 2013, (79): e50955. doi: 10.3791/50955.
36. Kang DW, Cha BG, Lee JH, et al. Ultrasmall polymer-coated cerium oxide nanoparticles as a traumatic brain injury therapy. Nanomedicine, 2022, 45: 102586. doi: 10.1016/j.nano.2022.102586.
37. Ellens DJ, Gaidica M, Toader A, et al. An automated rat single pellet reaching system with high-speed video capture. J Neurosci Methods, 2016, 271: 119-127.
38. Detloff MR, Wade RE, Houlé JD. Chronic at- and below-level pain after moderate unilateral cervical spinal cord contusion in rats. J Neurotrauma, 2013, 30(10): 884-890.
39. Hargreaves K, Dubner R, Brown F, et al. A new and sensitive method for measuring thermal nociception in cutaneous hyperalgesia. Pain, 1988, 32(1): 77-88.
40. Chitturi J, Sanganahalli BG, Herman P, et al. Association between magnetic resonance imaging-based spinal morphometry and sensorimotor behavior in a hemicontusion model of incomplete cervical spinal cord injury in rats. Brain Connect, 2020, 10(9): 479-489.
41. Mihai G, Nout YS, Tovar CA, et al. Longitudinal comparison of two severities of unilateral cervical spinal cord injury using magnetic resonance imaging in rats. J Neurotrauma, 2008, 25(1): 1-18.
42. Dalkilic T, Fallah N, Noonan VK, et al. Predicting injury severity and neurological recovery after acute cervical spinal cord injury: A comparison of cerebrospinal fluid and magnetic resonance imaging biomarkers. J Neurotrauma, 2018, 35(3): 435-445.
43. Deo AA, Grill RJ, Hasan KM, et al. In vivo serial diffusion tensor imaging of experimental spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res, 2006, 83(5): 801-810.
44. Shen H, Tang Y, Huang L, et al. Applications of diffusion-weighted MRI in thoracic spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality. Int Orthop, 2007, 31(3): 375-383.
45. Lee SY, Schmit BD, Kurpad SN, et al. Acute magnetic resonance imaging predictors of chronic motor function and tissue sparing in rat cervical spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma, 2022. doi: 10.1089/neu.2022.0034.
46. Jirjis MB, Valdez C, Vedantam A, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging as a biomarker for assessing neuronal stem cell treatments affecting areas distal to the site of spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg Spine, 2017, 26(2): 243-251.
47. Ogawa S, Lee TM, Kay AR, et al. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 1990, 87(24): 9868-9872.
48. Meyer BP, Hirschler L, Lee S, et al. Optimized cervical spinal cord perfusion MRI after traumatic injury in the rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 2021, 41(8): 2010-2025.
49. Younsi A, Zheng G, Riemann L, et al. Long-term effects of neural precursor cell transplantation on secondary injury processes and functional recovery after severe cervical contusion-compression spinal cord injury. Int J Mol Sci, 2021, 22(23): 13106. doi: 10.3390/ijms222313106.
50. Walker CL, Zhang YP, Liu Y, et al. Anatomical and functional effects of lateral cervical hemicontusion in adult rats. Restor Neurol Neurosci, 2016, 34(3): 389-400.
51. Huang Z, Li R, Liu J, et al. Longitudinal electrophysiological changes after cervical hemi-contusion spinal cord injury in rats. Neurosci Lett, 2018, 664: 116-122.
52. Wilcox JT, Satkunendrarajah K, Nasirzadeh Y, et al. Generating level-dependent models of cervical and thoracic spinal cord injury: Exploring the interplay of neuroanatomy, physiology, and function. Neurobiol Dis, 2017, 105: 194-212.
53. Li R, Huang ZC, Cui HY, et al. Utility of somatosensory and motor-evoked potentials in reflecting gross and fine motor functions after unilateral cervical spinal cord contusion injury. Neural Regen Res, 2021, 16(7): 1323-1330.
54. Chen K, Liu J, Assinck P, et al. Differential histopathological and behavioral outcomes eight weeks after rat spinal cord injury by contusion, dislocation, and distraction mechanisms. J Neurotrauma, 2016, 33(18): 1667-1684.
55. Sharif-Alhoseini M, Khormali M, Rezaei M, et al. Animal models of spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Spinal Cord, 2017, 55(8): 714-721.

Chinese Journal of Reparative and Reconstructive Surgery

Research progress on rodent models of cervical spinal cord injury

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